Ploysaccharide mind map for medical student

 

Disaccharides mind map for medical student

 

                         ENZYMES 

Mind ma 

ENZYMES — SHORT NOTE (Exam Oriented)

Reference: Satyanarayan

Definition-Enzymes are biological catalysts, mostly proteins, that speed up biochemical reactions without being consumed.

Key Characteristics

Highly specific for substrates

Lower activation energy

Remain unchanged after reaction

Active at optimum pH & temperature

Mostly globu

Some require cofactors

Classification of Enzymes (IUBMB)

Oxidoreductases – Redox reactions

Transferases – Transfer functional groups

Hydrolases – Hydrolysis reactions

Lyases – Add/remove groups without water

Isomerases – Rearrangement reactions

Ligases – Joining molecules using ATP

Mnemonic -OTHLIL

Mechanism of Action

1)Lock and Key Model

2)Induced Fit Model

(Substrate binds to active site → product formed)

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

1)Temperature- optimum temprature enzyme activity is high 

At low temperature enzyme activity is stop 

At high temperature enzyme activity denaturation 

2) ph-optimum ph it will be high enzyme activity 

3)Substrate concentration-Vmax is low high is the velocity of an enzyme and vise Versa 

4)Enzyme concentration-high concentration of enzyme High its velocity 

Enzyme Inhibition

1)Competitive – Competes with substrate

2)Non-competitive – Binds elsewhere

3)Irreversible – Permanently inactivates enzyme

Isoenzymes 

Definition:

Isoenzymes are different molecular forms of the same enzyme that catalyze the same biochemical reaction but differ in physical, chemical, kinetic properties and tissue distribution.

Characteristics

1)Same substrate specificity

2)Different amino acid composition

3)Different electrophoretic mobility

4)Different optimum pH & Km

5)Tissue specific distribution

Example

1)Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)

Tetrameric enzyme made of H & M subunits

5 isoenzymes:

LDH₁ (H₄) – Heart

LDH₂ (H₃M₁) – RBC

LDH₃ (H₂M₂) – Lung

LDH₄ (H₁M₃) – Kidney

LDH₅ (M₄) – Liver & Skeletal muscle

2)Creatine Kinase (CK) – Applications

Creatine kinase catalyzes the reversible transfer of phosphate between creatine and ATP. It exists as isoenzymes, useful in clinical diagnosis.

CK Isoenzymes

CK-BB (CK₁) – Brain, smooth muscle

CK-MB (CK₂) – Cardiac muscle

CK-MM (CK₃) – Skeletal muscle

Clinical Importance

Diagnostic markers (AST, ALT, ALP)

Used in therapy & biotechnology

Metabolic disease detection

Fat soluble vitamins

 

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| Vitamin | Scientific Name | Structure (Key Feature) | Sources | Functions | Deficiency |

| Vitamin A | Retinol | β-ionone ring + long isoprenoid chain | Fish liver oil, milk, egg, carrot, green leafy vegetables | Vision (rhodopsin), epithelial integrity, growth | Night blindness, xerophthalmia |

| Vitamin D | Calciferol (D₂/D₃) | Steroid nucleus | Sunlight, fish liver oil, egg yolk, butter | Calcium & phosphorus absorption, bone mineralization | Rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults) |

| Vitamin E | Tocopherol | Chromanol ring + phytyl side chain | Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, wheat germ | Antioxidant, protects cell membranes | Hemolytic anemia (rare), neuromuscular defects |

| Vitamin K | Phylloquinone | Naphthoquinone ring | Green leafy vegetables, cabbage, gut bacteria | Blood clotting (Factors II, VII, IX, X) | Bleeding tendency, prolonged clotting time |

Lipids

                                               Lipids

STERILISATION AND DISINFECTION

                                STERALISATION

Define -It is a process by which an article,surface or medium is made free of all microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore form 

                                                            

                                       HEAT BASED 

A)Moist Heat based 

Heat is most relaible method of steralsition the most heat kills the bacteria by denaturation and coagulation of the cytoplasmic proteins 

1)TEMP BELOW 100 oC

Vaccine bath -At 56 oC for 1hrs 

Pasteurisation of milk -63oC for 30 min

2) TEMP ABOVE 100 oC

Boiling 

Steam at atmospheric pressure at 100 oC for 90 min 

                            Autoclave 

 Principles and procedure 

Principle-

1)Water boils when vapour pressure  = surrounding atmosphere 

2)Pressure inside a closed vessels increase the atmosphere boils also increased to more 100 oC

3)The considered water ensure the moist conditions for killing of the microbes present 

Procedure 

1)Before beginning to use the autoclave, it should be checked for any items left from the previous cycle.

2)A sufficient amount of water is then put inside the chamber.

Now, the materials to be sterilized are placed inside the chamber.

3)The lid is then closed, and the screws are tightened to ensure an airtight condition, and the electric heater is switched on.

4)The safety valves are adjusted to maintain the required pressure in the chamber.

5)Once the water inside the chamber boils, the air-water mixture is allowed to escape through the discharge tube to let all the air inside to be displaced. 

6)The complete displacement can be ensured once the water bubbles cease to come out from the pipe.

7)The drainage pipe is then closed, and the steam inside is allowed to reach the desired levels (15 lbs in most cases).

8)Once the pressure is reached, the whistle blows to remove excess pressure from the chamber.

9)After the whistle, the autoclave is run for a holding period, which is 15 minutes in most cases.

10)Now, the electric heater is switched off, and the autoclave is allowed to cool until the pressure gauge indicates the pressure inside has lowered down to that of the atmospheric pressure.

11)The discharge pipe is then opened to allow the entry of air from the outside into the autoclave.

12)Finally, the lid is opened, and the sterilized materials are taken out of the chamber.

                                                 Components 

    1) vertical or horizontal cylinder of gunmetal or stainless-steel 

     2)Lid 

     3)Electricity 

                                                   USES 

1) Culture media 

2)Rubber articles like tubes,etc 

3)syringes and surgical instrument 

4)Endodontic instruments 

5)Hand instruments 

               DRY HEAT STERALISTION 

     HOT AIR OVEN 

-It is most widely used method of steralisation by dry heat 

-It is also fitted a thermostat the maintaining the chamber air at a chosen temprature 

                                       160oC -2hrs

USES 

1)Glass-wrapes like glass syringes flakes,tubes 

2)Surgical instrument like scalples, scissors, etc 

               

                     FILTERSTION AND.                                                               RADIATION 

     

                   CHEMICAL METHODS 

Biomolecules class 11th mind map

 Biomolecules class 11th mind map